Golem Network has embarked on a significant initiative to stake its ETH holdings, a strategic move aimed at supporting the project's long-term growth and development. Following the successful completion of initial testing phases, this article provides a detailed summary of the process, key findings, and the planned next steps in this ambitious undertaking.
Primary Objectives of the Ethereum Staking Tests
The staking tests were meticulously designed with several critical goals in mind:
- To establish a secure, scalable methodology for depositing ETH into validators within the existing infrastructure.
- To rigorously evaluate and optimize all hardware and software components to guarantee peak performance and system stability.
- To proactively identify, assess, and mitigate potential risks associated with Ethereum staking operations.
- To contribute positively to the health of the Ethereum ecosystem by increasing client diversity on the network.
Ensuring Security During Mainnet Testing
Given the substantial amount of ETH allocated for testing on the Ethereum Mainnet, operational security was the highest priority. The team focused on creating a tightly controlled environment to meticulously monitor how various factors influenced the staking processes. To bolster security and minimize risks like spam transactions, several robust measures were implemented:
- Deployment of multiple, isolated staking pools, each with unique withdrawal and deposit addresses.
- Utilization of a combination of multisignature contracts and standard Ethereum addresses to manage deposit and withdrawal functions.
- Strategic routing of transactions through centralized exchanges when moving funds between Golem’s multisig and the final deposit addresses.
Comprehensive Preparation Phase
Extensive preparations were crucial for the tests' success. For depositing large volumes of ETH, a solution based on a modified StakeFish BatchDeposit smart contract was developed, internally audited, and deployed. A Gnosis multisig smart contract was also employed to manage yields from a specific set of withdrawal addresses.
A key part of the preparation involved comparing various Ethereum clients to ensure optimal performance and support network diversity:
- Execution Layer Clients: Geth, Nethermind, Erigon
- Consensus Layer Clients: Lighthouse, Nimbus
The final client selection and their distribution were carefully considered to align with the principle of maintaining healthy Ethereum client diversity.
Detailed Phases of the Staking Tests
The testing was executed in a structured, chronological sequence of phases.
Phase 1: Initial Deployment on Holesky Testnet
The first round of tests was conducted on the Holesky Testnet. A multisig wallet was deployed to facilitate staking deposits. Using a custom version of the BatchDeposit contract, staking for multiple validators was initiated successfully. The validators recognized the deposits and began participating actively in the Proof of Stake protocol. After several days of stable operation, the team proceeded to the next phase.
Phase 2: Mainnet 'Sanity' Checks with 5 Validators
A small-scale test involving 5 validators was conducted on the Ethereum Mainnet to verify the entire configuration under real-world conditions. This test served as a final sanity check before scaling up. The process proceeded smoothly, confirming the readiness of the setup and providing the green light for expansion.
Phase 3: Scaling the Validator Count on Mainnet
The scaling phase began with the creation of three distinct staking pools: one managed by a multisig wallet and two smaller pools controlled by regular ETH addresses. Subsequently, inspired by the Web3Pi project, a fourth pool was added to evaluate the staking capabilities of a Raspberry Pi device.
Staking Pool A - Large-Scale Tests
This pool was used to progressively add validators, assessing the impact on infrastructure performance and stability. It involved testing various hardware/software configurations and operational scenarios like key transfers and adding validators to live nodes to minimize downtime.
Staking Pool B & C - Software Configuration Tests
These two pools were dedicated to testing how different software configurations affect staking performance and overall system stability.
Staking Pool D - Golem Ecosystem Fund
This pool was established via publicly visible blockchain transactions, demonstrating confidence in the scaled infrastructure. A significant portion of the yield generated here is committed to funding the Golem Ecosystem Fund.
Staking Pool E - Raspberry Pi Device Tests
This pool was dedicated to evaluating the performance of a Raspberry Pi device handling ETH staking, with details to be revealed after the conclusion of tests.
In-Depth Analysis: Raspberry Pi 5 for Solo Staking
Inspired by external projects, the team decided to rigorously test the capability of a Raspberry Pi 5 device for solo staking. The results significantly exceeded initial expectations that the device would only be suitable for a small number of validators.
The Test Environment Setup
An isolated network with a 1Gbit/s symmetric internet link was established for testing. The setup included:
- A Staking Node (Raspberry Pi 5) running Geth and Nimbus clients, hosting all validators.
- A Helper Node (Raspberry Pi 5) running Geth and Lighthouse to query the Beacon Chain and minimize downtime.
- A Metrics Server (Raspberry Pi 4) running Grafana and InfluxDB to collect and visualize node status and system resource data.
- A Router (Compute Module 4) and a Network Switch to manage connections.
The staking node itself was a stock Raspberry Pi 5 (8GB RAM) overclocked to 3.0 GHz, booting from an NVMe SSD via PCIe, running Ubuntu.
Exceptional Performance Results
Tests were conducted on the Ethereum Mainnet with MEV-Boost enabled. The goal was to reach 100 validators gradually, but the device performed so well that the test was expanded:
- 60 validators: Achieved an average attestation performance of 99.94%.
- 75 validators: Performance improved to 99.98%.
- 100 validators: Handled with ease, achieving 99.99% performance.
- 150 validators: Added with no performance decrease.
- 200 validators: Finally, a total of 200 validators ran flawlessly on a single device for over 10 consecutive days, with the node successfully producing blocks.
Resilience and Hardware Stress Testing
A key test involved disconnecting the network for 5 hours with 150 active validators. Upon reconnection:
- Geth resumed syncing and regenerated its snapshot.
- The node began attesting even during the resource-intensive regeneration process.
- The device maintained functionality despite encountering cooling issues (degraded thermal pads) that caused CPU throttling and temperatures up to 80°C.
Under normal conditions with adequate cooling, the chipset temperature never exceeded 70°C, even under a 400% CPU load during initial synchronization, and avoided throttling entirely. Post-sync, temperatures remained below 60°C. The SSD temperature consistently stayed below 50°C.
Network and Resource Usage
Network traffic peaked at approximately 110 Mibit/s inbound and 103 Mibit/s outbound. The device maintained nearly 1,200 UDP and over 600 TCP connections simultaneously, well within the capabilities of a standard gigabit connection.
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Conclusion and Future Directions
Throughout this process, the team identified a fragmentation of knowledge surrounding Ethereum Proof-of-Stake, including risks, software choices, hardware requirements, and infrastructure configurations.
The Raspberry Pi 5 tests were a standout success, demonstrating an affordable and highly reliable method for solo staking that enhances the resilience and decentralization of the Ethereum Network. The results suggest that the practical limit for validators on such a device is far higher than the 200 achieved in this test.
To address the knowledge gap and empower others, Golem Network plans to fund the development of a 'Whitebook of Staking'. This comprehensive guide will detail various approaches to staking ETH, including their implications and provide step-by-step instructions. Updates on this initiative and ongoing tests will be shared as they progress.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is solo staking on Ethereum?
Solo staking involves an individual or entity running their own Ethereum validator node(s) by depositing 32 ETH per validator. It requires maintaining the necessary hardware and software infrastructure to ensure the validator remains online and performs its duties, offering the highest level of decentralization and direct control over rewards.
Why is client diversity important for Ethereum?
Client diversity is critical for the health and security of the Ethereum network. If a vast majority of validators run the same client software, a bug in that client could potentially cause a mass slashing event or chain split. A diverse client distribution mitigates this systemic risk.
What are the main risks associated with solo staking?
The primary risks include technical failures (like internet or power outages), slashing due to misconfiguration, the volatility of ETH's value, and the initial capital requirement. Proper setup, monitoring, and maintenance are essential to mitigate these risks.
How does a Raspberry Pi 5 perform as a staking machine?
As demonstrated in Golem's tests, a properly configured Raspberry Pi 5 is a robust and efficient device for solo staking. It can reliably handle at least 200 validators while maintaining excellent attestation performance (>99.9%), provided it has adequate cooling and a stable internet connection.
What is a multisignature (multisig) wallet, and why is it used in staking?
A multisig wallet requires multiple private keys to authorize a transaction. It's used in staking setups for enhanced security, ensuring that no single person can move funds without consensus from other designated key holders, thus protecting the staked assets.
Where can I learn more about setting up my own staking infrastructure?
While detailed guides are still being consolidated into projects like the proposed 'Whitebook of Staking', you can begin by researching the official documentation for Ethereum consensus and execution layer clients. 👉 Get advanced methods for setting up a node